Unveiling the Secrets of Amplifier Power: A Comprehensive Guide for Guitarists

Understanding Amplifier Power: The Foundation of Optimal Tone

Every guitarist knows their amp is a big part of their sound, but it can be tough to know where to start when picking one out. There are so many different types and models of amplifiers on the market, each with its own unique set of features. How do you know which one is right for you?

In this article, we’ll break down the basics of amplifier power and help you understand how it affects your tone. We’ll also discuss the different types of amplifiers available, and how to match them to your guitar. By the end of this article, you’ll have a better understanding of amplifier power and how to choose the right amp for your needs.

What Exactly Is Amplifier Power and Why Does It Matter? An amplifier is a device that takes a weak electrical signal from your guitar and amplifies it so that it can be heard through a speaker. The power of an amplifier is measured in watts, and it determines how loud the amplifier can be. A more powerful amplifier will be able to produce more volume, which can be useful for playing in large venues or with a loud band. However, more power doesn’t always mean better tone. As we’ll see later in this article, the type of amplifier you choose will also have a big impact on your sound.

1. Understanding Amplifier Wattage: The Foundation of Power

Understanding Amplifier Wattage: The Foundation of Power

Discover the significance of amplifier wattage, deciphering its role in determining volume, headroom, and the overall dynamics of your sound.

The wattage of an amplifier is one of the most important factors to consider when choosing an amp. It’s expressed in watts and refers to the amount of electrical power the amp can deliver to your speakers. Generally, a higher wattage amp will be louder than a lower wattage amp. However, wattage is not the only factor that determines volume. Other factors, such as the efficiency of your speakers, will also play a role.

Headroom is another important consideration. Headroom refers to the amount of clean power an amp has in reserve. A higher headroom is good because it means your amp will be less likely to distort when you’re playing at high volumes. It can help preserve the clarity and nuance of your sound, especially when playing complex or dynamic passages.

The overall dynamics of your sound are also affected by the wattage of your amp. A higher wattage amp will be able to produce a wider range of volume and dynamics, from soft and clean to loud and distorted. This can give you more flexibility and control over your sound.

Overall, the wattage of your amp is an important factor to consider when choosing an amp. By understanding how wattage affects volume, headroom, and dynamics, you can make an informed decision about the right amp for your needs.

Power Handling: Matching Impedance for Optimal Performance

Power Handling: Matching Impedance for Optimal Performance

Amps and speakers have something called impedance, which is measured in ohms. Impedance is basically how much resistance the speaker presents to the amp. Every amp will have a recommended impedance range and your speaker needs to match that range as closely as possible. If the impedance is mismatched, it can cause problems with power handling, tone, and even damage to your amp or speakers.

Matching impedance is important because it ensures that your amp is delivering the correct amount of power to your speakers. If the impedance is too low, the amp will be overloaded and could overheat or even blow a fuse. If the impedance is too high, the amp will not be able to deliver enough power to the speakers and the sound will be weak and thin.

In addition to power handling, impedance matching also affects the tone of your sound. A properly matched impedance will result in a more balanced and natural sound. If the impedance is mismatched, the sound can be boomy or harsh.

So, how do you make sure that your amp and speakers are properly matched? The first step is to check the impedance of your speakers. This information can usually be found on the back of the speaker cabinet or in the manufacturer’s documentation. Once you know the impedance of your speakers, you need to make sure that your amp is compatible. The amp’s impedance range will be listed in the product specifications.

If you’re not sure whether your amp and speakers are properly matched, it’s always best to consult with a qualified technician.

Headroom: The Key to Clarity and Dynamic Range

Headroom: The Key to Clarity and Dynamic Range

Headroom is a term that refers to the amount of clean power an amplifier has in reserve. It’s expressed in decibels (dB) and it measures the difference between the amp’s rated output power and the point at which it starts to distort.

Headroom is important because it allows your amp to handle sudden increases in volume without distorting. This is especially important for playing dynamic styles of music, such as jazz or classical, where you need to be able to switch between soft and loud passages without losing clarity.

Amps with more headroom will also sound cleaner at higher volumes. This is because they have more power in reserve to handle the peaks in your signal without distorting. As a result, you’ll get a more natural and transparent sound, even when you’re playing at high volumes.

In addition to clarity, headroom also affects the dynamic range of your playing. Dynamic range is the difference between the loudest and softest sounds you can play on your guitar. An amp with more headroom will give you a wider dynamic range, allowing you to play with more expression and nuance.

So, how do you know if your amp has enough headroom? The best way is to listen to it and see how it sounds at different volumes. If you start to hear distortion when you’re playing at high volumes, then your amp probably doesn’t have enough headroom.

Generally speaking, a good rule of thumb is to buy an amp with at least 20dB of headroom. This will give you plenty of power to handle even the most dynamic playing styles.

2. Types of Amplifiers: Solid-State, Tube, and Hybrid

Types of Amplifiers: Solid-State, Tube, and Hybrid

There are three main types of guitar amplifiers: solid-state, tube, and hybrid. Each type has its own unique sound and feel, so it’s important to understand the differences before making a purchase.

Solid-State Amplifiers

Solid-state amps use transistors to amplify the signal from your guitar. They are known for their clean, precise sound and their reliability. Solid-state amps are also relatively affordable and easy to maintain.

Tube Amplifiers

Tube amps use vacuum tubes to amplify the signal from your guitar. They are known for their warm, natural sound and their ability to produce overdrive and distortion. Tube amps are more expensive than solid-state amps and they require more maintenance.

Hybrid Amplifiers

Hybrid amps combine the best of both worlds. They use a combination of transistors and vacuum tubes to amplify the signal from your guitar. Hybrid amps offer a wide range of sounds, from clean to overdrive to distortion. They are also more affordable than tube amps and they require less maintenance.

Which Type of Amplifier is Right for You?

The best type of amplifier for you depends on your individual needs and preferences. If you’re looking for a clean, precise sound, a solid-state amp is a good choice. If you’re looking for a warm, natural sound, a tube amp is a good choice. And if you’re looking for a versatile amp that can produce a wide range of sounds, a hybrid amp is a good choice.

Here’s a table that summarizes the key differences between solid-state, tube, and hybrid amplifiers:

| Feature | Solid-State | Tube | Hybrid | |—|—|—|—| | Sound | Clean, precise | Warm, natural | Versatile | | Reliability | High | Low | Medium | | Affordability | Affordable | Expensive | Medium | | Maintenance | Easy | Difficult | Medium |

Solid-State Amplifiers: Precision and Reliability

Solid-State Amplifiers: Precision and Reliability

Solid-state amplifiers are known for their clean, precise sound and their reliability. They are also relatively affordable and easy to maintain.

Solid-state amps use transistors to amplify the signal from your guitar. Transistors are small, solid-state devices that can amplify a signal without the use of vacuum tubes. This makes solid-state amps more reliable and durable than tube amps.

Solid-state amps also have a very consistent sound. This is because transistors are not affected by changes in temperature or humidity, like vacuum tubes are. As a result, solid-state amps always sound the same, regardless of the environment you’re playing in.

Another advantage of solid-state amps is that they are relatively affordable. This is because transistors are less expensive to manufacture than vacuum tubes. Solid-state amps also require less maintenance than tube amps. Transistors do not need to be replaced as often as vacuum tubes, and they are less likely to fail.

Solid-state amps have long been criticized for lacking warmth and nuance compared to tube amplifiers. However, in recent years, there have been many major advancements in transistors. Modern solid-state amps feature complex analog preamp circuits paired with digital amp modeling technologies that emulate the sound and feel of classic vacuum tube amplifiers.

Overall, solid-state amplifiers are a great choice for guitarists who are looking for a clean, precise sound, consistent performance, and low maintenance requirements.

Tube Amplifiers: Warmth and Harmonic Complexity

Tube Amplifiers: Warmth and Harmonic Complexity

Tube amplifiers are known for their warm, natural sound and their ability to produce overdrive and distortion. They are also more expensive and require more maintenance than solid-state amps.

Tube amps use vacuum tubes to amplify the signal from your guitar. Vacuum tubes are glass envelopes that contain a heated filament, a plate, and a grid. When a signal is applied to the grid, it causes the electrons to flow from the filament to the plate, which amplifies the signal.

Tube amps produce a warm, natural sound because the vacuum tubes add harmonics to the signal. Harmonics are frequencies that are related to the fundamental frequency of the note you are playing. They give your sound a richer, fuller tone.

Tube amps also produce natural overdrive and distortion. When you turn up the volume on a tube amp, the vacuum tubes start to saturate and produce a warm, smooth distortion. This distortion is often described as

Hybrid Amplifiers: Blending the Best of Both Worlds

Hybrid Amplifiers: Blending the Best of Both Worlds

Hybrid amplifiers combine the best of both solid-state and tube technologies. They use a combination of transistors and vacuum tubes to amplify the signal from your guitar. This gives them a unique sound that is both warm and precise.

Hybrid amps are also very versatile. They can produce a wide range of sounds, from clean to overdrive to distortion. This makes them a great choice for guitarists who play a variety of styles of music.

Another advantage of hybrid amps is that they are more affordable than tube amps. They also require less maintenance than tube amps. Transistors do not need to be replaced as often as vacuum tubes, and they are less likely to fail.

Here are some of the advantages of hybrid amplifiers:

• They offer a unique sound that is both warm and precise.
• They are very versatile and can produce a wide range of sounds.
• They are more affordable than tube amps.
• They require less maintenance than tube amps.

Overall, hybrid amplifiers are a great choice for guitarists who are looking for a versatile amp that offers a unique sound and requires less maintenance than a tube amp.

3. Power Attenuators: Preserving Tone at Lower Volumes

Power Attenuators: Preserving Tone at Lower Volumes

Power attenuators are devices that allow you to reduce the wattage of your amplifier without compromising its tonal quality. This can be useful for playing at lower volumes, such as when you’re practicing at home or recording in a studio.

Power attenuators work by absorbing some of the power from your amplifier and dissipating it as heat. This reduces the amount of power that reaches your speakers, which in turn reduces the volume.

There are two main types of power attenuators: reactive and resistive. Reactive attenuators are more expensive, but they offer better sound quality. Resistive attenuators are more affordable, but they can alter the tone of your amplifier.

Benefits of Using a Power Attenuator

There are several benefits to using a power attenuator:

• You can play at lower volumes without sacrificing tone. This is especially useful for practicing at home or recording in a studio.
• You can extend the life of your amplifier. Running your amplifier at lower volumes will reduce the wear and tear on its components.
• You can get more versatility from your amplifier. Many power attenuators have built-in features, such as speaker emulators and effects loops, that can expand the capabilities of your amp.

How to Choose a Power Attenuator

When choosing a power attenuator, there are a few things to keep in mind:

• The wattage of your amplifier. Make sure that the power attenuator you choose can handle the wattage of your amp.
• The type of attenuator. Reactive attenuators offer better sound quality, but they are more expensive. Resistive attenuators are more affordable, but they can alter the tone of your amplifier.
• The features. Some power attenuators have built-in features, such as speaker emulators and effects loops. Consider the features that are important to you when choosing an attenuator.

Overall, power attenuators are a great way to reduce the wattage of your amplifier without compromising its tonal quality. This can be useful for playing at lower volumes, extending the life of your amplifier, and getting more versatility from your amp.

Reactive and Resistive Attenuators: Differences and Applications

Reactive and Resistive Attenuators: Differences and Applications

There are two main types of power attenuators: reactive and resistive. Reactive attenuators are more expensive, but they offer better sound quality. Resistive attenuators are more affordable, but they can alter the tone of your amplifier.

Reactive Attenuators

Reactive attenuators use a combination of resistors and inductors to absorb power from your amplifier. This type of attenuator is more expensive, but it offers better sound quality because it does not alter the impedance of your amplifier.

Resistive Attenuators

Resistive attenuators use resistors to absorb power from your amplifier. This type of attenuator is more affordable, but it can alter the tone of your amplifier because it changes the impedance of your amp.

Which Type of Attenuator is Right for You?

The type of attenuator that is right for you depends on your needs and budget. If you are looking for the best possible sound quality, then a reactive attenuator is the best choice. However, if you are on a budget, then a resistive attenuator may be a better option.

Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between reactive and resistive attenuators:

| Feature | Reactive Attenuator | Resistive Attenuator | |—|—|—| | Sound quality | Better | Good | | Price | More expensive | More affordable | | Impedance | Does not alter | Alters |

Applications

Reactive attenuators are best suited for situations where you need the best possible sound quality, such as when recording in a studio. Resistive attenuators are a good choice for situations where you are on a budget or where you do not need the highest possible sound quality, such as when practicing at home.

Benefits of Attenuators: Versatility and Flexibility

Benefits of Attenuators: Versatility and Flexibility

Power attenuators offer a number of benefits for guitarists, including:

• Quiet practice. Power attenuators allow you to play your amplifier at lower volumes without sacrificing tone. This is especially useful for practicing at home or in an apartment.
• Enhanced recording capabilities. Power attenuators can help you get a better sound when recording your guitar. By reducing the volume of your amplifier, you can avoid overloading your microphone and getting a distorted sound.
• Extended amplifier lifespan. Running your amplifier at lower volumes will reduce the wear and tear on its components. This can help extend the life of your amp.

In addition to these benefits, power attenuators can also provide you with more versatility and flexibility. Many power attenuators have built-in features, such as speaker emulators and effects loops. These features can allow you to get a wider range of sounds from your amplifier.

Here are some specific examples of how power attenuators can be used to enhance your playing:

• You can use a power attenuator to practice your guitar at home without disturbing your family or neighbors.
• You can use a power attenuator to record your guitar in a studio without overloading your microphone.
• You can use a power attenuator to get a wider range of sounds from your amplifier by using the built-in features, such as speaker emulators and effects loops.

Overall, power attenuators are a versatile and flexible tool that can help you get the most out of your amplifier.

4. Matching Amplifiers to Guitars: Unveiling the Perfect Pairing

Matching Amplifiers to Guitars: Unveiling the Perfect Pairing

Matching your amplifier to your guitar is an important part of getting the sound you want. There are several factors to consider when matching amplifiers and guitars, including impedance, output levels, and tonal preferences.

Impedance

Impedance is a measure of how much resistance a circuit offers to the flow of electricity. Amplifiers and guitars both have impedance ratings. It is important to match the impedance of your amplifier to the impedance of your guitar. If the impedance is mismatched, you can lose power and damage your equipment.

Output Levels

Output level is a measure of how loud an amplifier can play. Guitars also have output levels. It is important to match the output level of your guitar to the input level of your amplifier. If the output level of your guitar is too high, you can overload the input of your amplifier and get a distorted sound.

Tonal Preferences

Finally, it is important to consider your tonal preferences when matching amplifiers and guitars. Different amplifiers have different sounds. Some amplifiers are designed to produce a clean sound, while others are designed to produce a distorted sound. It is important to choose an amplifier that produces the sound you want.

Here are some tips for matching amplifiers and guitars:

• Start by matching the impedance of your amplifier to the impedance of your guitar. This is the most important factor to consider.
• Next, match the output level of your guitar to the input level of your amplifier. This will help you avoid overloading the input of your amplifier.
• Finally, consider your tonal preferences when choosing an amplifier. Different amplifiers have different sounds. Choose an amplifier that produces the sound you want.

By following these tips, you can match your amplifier to your guitar and get the sound you want.

Impedance Matching: Ensuring Harmony between Amplifier and Guitar

Impedance Matching: Ensuring Harmony between Amplifier and Guitar

Impedance matching is the process of matching the impedance of your amplifier to the impedance of your guitar. Impedance is a measure of how much resistance a circuit offers to the flow of electricity. Amplifiers and guitars both have impedance ratings. It is important to match the impedance of your amplifier to the impedance of your guitar to avoid power loss and potential damage to your equipment.

How Impedance Mismatches Can Affect Your Sound

If the impedance of your amplifier and guitar are mismatched, you can lose power and get a distorted sound. This is because an impedance mismatch can cause a reflection of the signal back into the amplifier. This reflected signal can interfere with the original signal, causing distortion and a loss of power.

How to Match Impedance

The easiest way to match impedance is to use a guitar cable that is the correct length. The length of the cable will affect the impedance of the circuit. A longer cable will have a higher impedance than a shorter cable.

You can also use an impedance matching transformer to match the impedance of your amplifier to the impedance of your guitar. Impedance matching transformers are available in a variety of configurations. You can find impedance matching transformers that are designed to match the impedance of any type of amplifier to the impedance of any type of guitar.

Benefits of Impedance Matching

There are several benefits to impedance matching your amplifier and guitar. Impedance matching can:

• Improve the sound quality of your amplifier.
• Increase the power output of your amplifier.
• Reduce distortion.
• Prevent damage to your amplifier and guitar.

Conclusion

Impedance matching is an important part of getting the best possible sound from your amplifier and guitar. By following the tips in this article, you can ensure that your amplifier and guitar are properly matched and that you are getting the best possible sound.

Output Levels: Finding the Sweet Spot for Your Setup

Output Levels: Finding the Sweet Spot for Your Setup

The output level of your amplifier is a measure of how loud it can play. It is important to find the right output level for your specific setup to get the best possible sound.

How Output Levels Affect Your Tone

The output level of your amplifier can affect your tone in a number of ways. A higher output level will produce a louder sound with more distortion. A lower output level will produce a cleaner sound with less distortion.

How to Find the Right Output Level

The right output level for your setup will depend on a number of factors, including the type of music you play, the size of the room you are playing in, and your personal preferences.

If you are playing in a small room, you will probably want to use a lower output level. This will help to avoid overwhelming the room with sound. If you are playing in a large room, you may want to use a higher output level to fill the space with sound.

Experiment with different output levels to find the one that sounds best to you. There is no right or wrong answer. The best output level is the one that you like the most.

Tips for Finding the Right Output Level

Here are a few tips for finding the right output level for your setup:

• Start by setting the output level of your amplifier to a low setting.
• Gradually increase the output level until you reach a level that is loud enough for you to hear clearly.
• If you start to hear distortion, turn down the output level until the distortion disappears.
• Experiment with different output levels to find the one that sounds best to you.

Conclusion

Finding the right output level for your amplifier is important for getting the best possible sound. By following the tips in this article, you can find the output level that is perfect for your setup.

Tonal Preferences: Tailoring Your Sound to Perfection

Tonal Preferences: Tailoring Your Sound to Perfection

Tonal preferences are subjective and vary from player to player. There is no right or wrong answer when it comes to what sounds good. The best way to find your own unique sound is to experiment with different amplifier and guitar combinations.

The Importance of Experimentation

The best way to find your own unique sound is to experiment with different amplifier and guitar combinations. There is no substitute for listening to different amps and guitars and seeing what you like best.

Tips for Experimentation

Here are a few tips for experimenting with different amplifier and guitar combinations:

• Start by listening to different amplifiers. Go to a music store and try out different amps with your guitar. Listen to how each amp sounds with your guitar and pay attention to the differences in tone.
• Next, try out different guitars with your amplifier. Bring your amplifier to a music store and try out different guitars with it. Listen to how each guitar sounds with your amp and pay attention to the differences in tone.
• Don’t be afraid to mix and match. There are no rules when it comes to matching amplifiers and guitars. Try out different combinations until you find one that you like.

Conclusion

Finding your own unique sound is a journey of experimentation. There is no right or wrong answer. The best way to find your sound is to experiment with different amplifier and guitar combinations and see what you like best.

5. Troubleshooting Amplifier Power Issues: Identifying and Resolving Problems

Troubleshooting Amplifier Power Issues: Identifying and Resolving Problems

Amplifiers are essential for giving your guitar its sound. But what do you do when your amp starts acting up? Here are some common amplifier power issues and how to troubleshoot them:

No Power

If your amp has no power, the first thing to check is the power cord. Make sure that it is plugged into a working outlet and that the cord is not damaged. If the power cord is fine, then the problem may be with the fuse. A blown fuse can be replaced with a new one of the same amperage.

Low Power

If your amp has low power, the problem may be with the power supply. The power supply can be tested with a voltmeter. If the power supply is not outputting the correct voltage, then it will need to be replaced.

Intermittent Power

If your amp has intermittent power, the problem may be with the power switch. The power switch can be tested with a continuity tester. If the power switch is not working properly, then it will need to be replaced.

Popping Sounds

If your amp is making popping sounds, the problem may be with the capacitors. Capacitors can be tested with a capacitance meter. If a capacitor is not within its specified capacitance range, then it will need to be replaced.

Humming Sounds

If your amp is humming, the problem may be with the grounding. The grounding can be tested with a multimeter. If the grounding is not correct, then it will need to be fixed.

Conclusion

These are just a few of the most common amplifier power issues. If you are experiencing any of these problems, then you can try the troubleshooting tips above. If you are not comfortable troubleshooting your amp yourself, then you should take it to a qualified technician.

Common Power Problems: Symptoms and Causes

Common Power Problems: Symptoms and Causes

No Power

Symptoms:

• The amplifier does not turn on.
• The power LED does not light up.

Causes:

• Faulty power cord
• Blown fuse
• Faulty power switch
• Faulty power supply

Low Power

Symptoms:

• The amplifier turns on, but the sound is weak or distorted.
• The power LED is dim.

Causes:

• Faulty power supply
• Faulty capacitors
• Faulty transistors
• Faulty speaker

Intermittent Power

Symptoms:

• The amplifier turns on and off intermittently.
• The power LED flickers.

Causes:

• Faulty power switch
• Faulty power supply
• Faulty grounding

Popping Sounds

Symptoms:

• The amplifier makes popping sounds when it is turned on or off.
• The popping sounds may be accompanied by a flash of light.

Causes:

• Faulty capacitors
• Faulty transistors
• Faulty speaker

Humming Sounds

Symptoms:

• The amplifier makes a humming sound when it is turned on.
• The humming sound may be louder when the amplifier is turned up.

Causes:

• Faulty grounding
• Faulty power supply
• Faulty capacitors

Troubleshooting Steps: A Logical Approach to Resolution

Troubleshooting Steps: A Logical Approach to Resolution

1. Check the Power Cord and Fuse

The first step in troubleshooting amplifier power issues is to check the power cord and fuse. Make sure that the power cord is plugged into a working outlet and that the cord is not damaged. If the power cord is fine, then check the fuse. A blown fuse can be replaced with a new one of the same amperage.

2. Check the Power Supply

If the power cord and fuse are fine, then the problem may be with the power supply. The power supply can be tested with a voltmeter. If the power supply is not outputting the correct voltage, then it will need to be replaced.

3. Check the Power Switch

If the power supply is fine, then the problem may be with the power switch. The power switch can be tested with a continuity tester. If the power switch is not working properly, then it will need to be replaced.

4. Check the Capacitors

If the power switch is fine, then the problem may be with the capacitors. Capacitors can be tested with a capacitance meter. If a capacitor is not within its specified capacitance range, then it will need to be replaced.

5. Check the Grounding

If the capacitors are fine, then the problem may be with the grounding. The grounding can be tested with a multimeter. If the grounding is not correct, then it will need to be fixed.

6. Seek Professional Help

If you have checked all of the above and you are still having problems with your amplifier, then it is best to seek professional help. A qualified technician can diagnose and repair your amplifier.

Seeking Professional Help: When to Consult an Expert

Seeking Professional Help: When to Consult an Expert

If you have tried the troubleshooting steps above and you are still having problems with your amplifier, then it is best to seek professional help. A qualified technician can diagnose and repair your amplifier.

Here are some signs that you should seek professional help:

• You have no experience working on electronics.
• You are not comfortable troubleshooting electrical problems.
• The problem is complex and you cannot identify the cause.
• The problem is persistent and you cannot resolve it yourself.

If you are experiencing any of these problems, then it is best to take your amplifier to a qualified technician. A technician can diagnose and repair your amplifier quickly and efficiently.

How to Find a Qualified Technician

There are a few things you can do to find a qualified technician:

• Ask for recommendations from friends or family members.
• Read online reviews of local repair shops.
• Look for a technician who is certified by the manufacturer of your amplifier.

Once you have found a qualified technician, you can schedule an appointment to have your amplifier repaired.

Quiz

1. What is the most important factor to consider when choosing an amplifier’s wattage? (a) The size of the room you will be playing in (b) The volume you need (c) The type of music you play (d) The impedance of your speakers

2. What is the benefit of using an amplifier with headroom? (a) It can handle sudden increases in volume without distorting (b) It produces a cleaner sound at higher volumes (c) It extends the dynamic range of your playing (d) All of the above

3. Which type of amplifier is known for its warm, natural sound? (a) Solid-state amplifier (b) Tube amplifier (c) Hybrid amplifier (d) Digital amplifier

4. What is the purpose of a power attenuator? (a) To reduce the wattage of your amplifier (b) To increase the wattage of your amplifier (c) To change the tone of your amplifier (d) To protect your speakers from damage

5. What is the most common cause of amplifier power problems? (a) Faulty power cord (b) Blown fuse (c) Faulty power switch (d) Faulty power supply

Answer Key

1. (d)
2. (d)
3. (b)
4. (a)
5. (b)